Determining Jealousy in Young Adults

Determinarea geloziei la adulții tineri

Gabriela LEUȚEANU[1]
leutanug@yahoo.com

[1] “Ion Creanga” State Pedagogical University, Moldova, PhD student, ORCHID ID: 0000-0001-8909-1161

Abstract

Jealousy represents a complex psychological phenomenon with a significant impact on an individual’s emotional and relational functioning, being considered a relevant indicator of personality organization. Beyond its immediate affective dimension, jealousy reflects the way early relational experiences, attachment styles, defensive mechanisms, and emotional regulation processes interact within the individual’s psychic structure. Persistent and maladaptive manifestations of jealousy may indicate structural vulnerabilities and difficulties in affective integration, whereas transient and adaptive forms are associated with secure attachment and mature defensive mechanisms. In this context, the analysis of jealousy provides an important perspective on personality organization and contributes to the development of psychotherapeutic interventions focused on mentalization, emotional regulation, and the strengthening of mature defense mechanisms. The present paper proposes an original self-report questionnaire on jealousy, developed by the author for the assessment of young and middle-aged adults. The instrument was designed to investigate jealous behaviors associated with attachment trauma. Preliminary results highlight adequate psychometric properties and support the scale’s relevance for assessing the affective and relational dimensions associated with jealousy. The questionnaire aims to identify the intensity of jealousy-related reactions in various relational contexts and contributes to clarifying the scientific problem under investigation. Furthermore, the instrument may represent a useful resource for future research regarding the relationship between trauma, attachment, and the affective functioning of the contemporary adult. The data suggest that jealousy reaches its peak between the ages of 25 and 35, a period in which relational commitments become central to adult identity. Young individuals (18–24 years) exhibit variable forms of jealousy influenced by exploration and emotional instability, whereas young adults (25–35 years) display more intense jealousy as an expression of greater emotional investment and relational responsibility. The integrated interpretation confirms that jealousy is a developmental phenomenon shaped by the interaction between emotional maturation, relational experience, and socio-cultural norms.

Keywords: jealousy, young adults, attachment trauma, self-report questionnaire, personality

Rezumat

Gelozia reprezintă un fenomen psihologic complex cu un impact semnificativ asupra funcționării emoționale și relaționale a unui individ, fiind considerată un indicator relevant al organizării personalității. Dincolo de dimensiunea sa afectivă imediată, gelozia reflectă modul în care experiențele relaționale timpurii, stilurile de atașament, mecanismele defensive și procesele de reglare emoțională interacționează în cadrul structurii psihice a individului. Manifestările persistente și maladaptive ale geloziei pot indica vulnerabilități structurale și dificultăți în integrarea afectivă, în timp ce formele tranzitorii și adaptive sunt asociate cu atașamentul sigur și mecanisme defensive mature. În acest context, analiza geloziei oferă o perspectivă importantă asupra organizării personalității și contribuie la dezvoltarea intervențiilor psihoterapeutice axate pe mentalizare, reglare emoțională și consolidarea mecanismelor de apărare mature. Prezenta lucrare propune un chestionar original de auto-raportare despre gelozie, dezvoltat de autor pentru evaluarea adulților tineri și de vârstă mijlocie. Instrumentul a fost conceput pentru a investiga comportamentele geloase asociate cu trauma atașamentului. Rezultatele preliminare evidențiază proprietăți psihometrice adecvate și susțin relevanța scalei pentru evaluarea dimensiunilor afective și relaționale asociate cu gelozia. Chestionarul își propune să identifice intensitatea reacțiilor legate de gelozie în diverse contexte relaționale și contribuie la clarificarea problemei științifice investigate. Mai mult, instrumentul poate reprezenta o resursă utilă pentru cercetările viitoare privind relația dintre traumă, atașament și funcționarea afectivă a adultului contemporan. Datele sugerează că gelozia atinge apogeul între vârstele de 25 și 35 de ani, o perioadă în care angajamentele relaționale devin centrale pentru identitatea adultă. Tinerii (18-24 de ani) prezintă forme variabile de gelozie influențate de explorare și instabilitate emoțională, în timp ce tinerii adulți (25-35 de ani) manifestă o gelozie mai intensă, ca expresie a unei investiții emoționale și a unei responsabilități relaționale mai mari. Interpretarea integrată confirmă faptul că gelozia este un fenomen de dezvoltare modelat de interacțiunea dintre maturizarea emoțională, experiența relațională și normele socio-culturale.

Cuvinte cheie: gelozie, adulți tineri, traumă de atașament, chestionar de autoevaluare, personalitate

 

CUNOAȘTEREA ȘTIINȚIFICĂ, Volumul 5, Numărul 3, Septembrie 2026, pp. 71-81
ISSN 2821 – 8086, ISSN – L 2821 – 8086, DOI: 10.58679/CS62535
URL: https://www.cunoasterea.ro/en/determining-jealousy-in-young-adults/
© 2026 Gabriela LEUȚEANU. Responsabilitatea conținutului, interpretărilor și opiniilor exprimate revine exclusiv autorilor.

 

License CC BY-NC-ND: This license permits reusers to copy and distribute the material on any medium or format only in unadapted form, only for non-commercial purposes, and only as long as attribution is given to the creator.

 

Introduction

In the context of a fast-paced society marked by diminishing family and community resources, the effects of psycho-emotional trauma are becoming increasingly evident at both the individual and social levels. Children and adolescents exposed to traumatic experiences present a higher risk of school dropout, behavioral disorders, and difficulties in social adaptation and integration (Perry & Szalavitz, 2006). In adulthood, these experiences may contribute to the development of personality disorders, depression, or various forms of addiction, significantly affecting quality of life and social functioning. Longitudinal research on adverse childhood experiences highlights the association between early trauma and an increased vulnerability to chronic illness, depression, and socio-economic difficulties later in life (Felitti et al., 1998).

Findings from the scientific literature suggest that manifestations of jealousy tend to decrease with age (Lantagne & Furman, 2017); however, clinical practice reveals the existence of significant individual differences. At the same time, psycho-emotional trauma, particularly trauma associated with attachment relationships, influences personality development and may contribute to the emergence of maladaptive relational behaviors, including jealousy manifested in adult relationships (Leuțanu, 2021). The family environment represents the first framework in which personality traits and emotional regulation strategies are formed, playing an essential role in shaping later manifestations of jealousy and other relational behaviors.

1. Jealousy as an Expression of Attachment Trauma

According to Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development (1963), adolescence and young adulthood are characterized by inner conflicts centered on the formation of intimate and romantic relationships. During this stage, individuals seek emotional closeness, stability, and mutual affection while exploring different forms of interpersonal commitment. Research conducted by Sun and colleagues (2021) highlights that early emotional abuse can negatively affect this developmental process, whereas empathic and supportive attitudes from a partner may have a protective role. Similarly, DiLillo and colleagues (2009) found that retrospectively reported childhood abuse experiences are associated with lower relationship satisfaction and difficulties in romantic functioning during adulthood. Furthermore, Kapeleris and Paivio (2011) emphasize that survivors of childhood emotional abuse tend to experience lower emotional security and reduced involvement in romantic relationships.

Jealousy is a common emotion in human experience, manifested regardless of age, culture, or social context. Although it is often associated with adult romantic relationships, its origins begin to take shape during childhood. The scientific literature defines jealousy as the emotional reaction to the perception of a real or imagined threat concerning the loss of a significant relationship (Muise et al., 2014). Early relationships with parents, siblings, and peers contribute to the development of this emotion and influence how individuals will manage jealousy in adulthood.

Jealousy is not considered an innate reaction but rather one learned within close relationships. Around the age of three, children begin to display jealous behaviors, especially within the family environment. Sibling rivalry for parental attention and affection represents one of the most common forms of jealousy at this age. Research conducted by Miller and colleagues (2000) shows that many children develop intense feelings of jealousy when they perceive an unequal distribution of parental attention or resources. This competition reflects the fundamental need for emotional validation and influences the way children later build affective relationships.

Childhood and preadolescent friendships also contribute to the consolidation of jealousy-related experiences. Studies by Deutz and colleagues (2015) indicate that the emergence of a new close friendship within a peer group may generate emotional insecurity and jealous reactions. These manifestations reflect the desire for exclusivity and loyalty in relationships and suggest that jealousy may function not only as a negative reaction but also as an expression of the value attributed to relationships and the fear of loss.

A child’s emotional development and the attachment style formed during the early years significantly influence how jealousy manifests in adult relationships. Secure relationships, characterized by stability, emotional availability, and affective validation, promote the development of balanced and adaptive relationships. In contrast, insecure attachment may contribute to personality vulnerabilities and dysfunctional relational behaviors, including heightened jealousy. Thus, the family environment and the quality of primary relationships form the emotional foundation for later romantic relationships and highlight the importance of early interventions.

Psychological literature distinguishes between jealousy as an emotion and jealousy as a defensive structure. As an emotion, jealousy represents an adaptive and temporary response to a perceived threat, functioning to mobilize the psychological resources necessary to protect the relationship (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2016). However, when it becomes a stable defensive structure, jealousy is associated with persistent emotional hyperactivation and the use of primitive defense mechanisms, such as projection or splitting (Kernberg, 1992; Klein, 2011). In such cases, jealousy reflects profound emotional regulation difficulties and structural fragility of personality.

In the context of attachment trauma, jealousy exceeds the boundaries of a normal emotional reaction and becomes an indicator of relational vulnerability. Individuals with insecure attachment may display intense jealousy, panic reactions, and defensive behaviors. According to Luyten and Fonagy (2015), unconscious attachment patterns formed early in life influence exaggerated reactions to perceived loss or rejection. These reactions may include avoidance, hostile confrontation, or relational hypervigilance, negatively affecting the quality of interactions and emotional stability.

From a psychological perspective, the mechanism of jealousy is considered a complex and multidimensional process resulting from the interaction of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral factors. In romantic relationships, jealousy emerges when an individual perceives a real or imagined threat to the stability of the relationship or to affective exclusivity. Although jealousy may serve an adaptive role by protecting significant relationships, it becomes maladaptive when excessive, rigid, or persistent, generating conflict and relational instability. The process begins with the perception of a relational threat, followed by the cognitive evaluation of the situation and the attribution of personal meaning to the event. Emotional reactions subsequently emerge, including anxiety, fear of abandonment, anger, or sadness. The final stage consists of the behavioral manifestations of jealousy, which may range from openly expressing concerns to monitoring, checking, or controlling behaviors directed toward the partner.

2. Jealousy self-report questionnaire

This self-report questionnaire was developed by the author and represents an original instrument that has not been identified in the scientific literature. It was designed for the assessment of young and middle-aged adults, with the purpose of contributing to the clarification of the scientific problem under investigation. The instrument aims to evaluate manifestations of jealous behavior associated with psycho-emotional attachment trauma.

The scale consists of 5 items, each formulated as a statement rated on a Likert scale ranging from 0 to 4, where: 0 = never, 1 = occasionally, 2 = sometimes, 3 = often, and 4 = always. The total score is calculated by summing the scores obtained for the 5 items. A higher total score indicates a higher level of jealousy manifestations.

The interpretation of raw scores is as follows: scores between 1 and 5 indicate a normative manifestation of jealous behavior; scores between 6 and 11 reflect a moderate to above-average level of jealousy that still allows adequate functioning in everyday life; scores between 12 and 20 indicate a high level of jealousy associated with potential clinically significant difficulties.

The questionnaire was administered to a sample of 180 young adults aged between 18 and 35 years who were not involved in romantic relationships at the time of assessment.

Table 1. – Descriptive Analyses at the Item Level

N      r raw        r std.       r corrected      r deleted               M         SD

 

JEALO.1         180	0.81	0.81	0.76	0.69       2.34       1.22
JEALO.2         180	0.78	0.78	0.71	0.64       2.39       1.25
JEALO.3         180	0.77	0.76	0.68	0.61       2.29       1.35
JEALO.4         180	0.75	0.74	0.64	0.58       2.19       1.39
JEALO.5         180	0.75	0.76	0.67	0.60       2.33       1.26

 

The descriptive and psychometric analyses at the item level of the jealousy scale indicate that all five items demonstrate strong internal consistency properties and contribute appropriately to the measurement of the evaluated construct.

Item JEALO.1 shows the highest raw and standardized item–total correlations (r = 0.81), suggesting that it is the most representative item for the jealousy construct. The high corrected correlation (r = 0.76) indicates that this item discriminates very well between participants with different levels of jealousy. The mean of 2.34 and standard deviation of 1.22 indicate a moderate level of agreement and sufficient variability in responses.

JEALO.2 presents very similar values to the first item (raw and standardized r = 0.78; corrected r = 0.71), confirming a strong contribution to the overall scale consistency. The mean of 2.39 is the highest among all items, suggesting a slightly higher level of agreement with the statement associated with this item. Response dispersion is moderate (SD = 1.25).

JEALO.3 shows good item–total correlations (raw r = 0.77; corrected r = 0.68), indicating that the item is appropriate and well integrated within the scale. The standard deviation of 1.35 reflects relatively high response variability, suggesting notable differences among participants regarding the experience described by this item.

JEALO.4 records the lowest item–total correlations among the items (raw r = 0.75; corrected r = 0.64), although these values remain above commonly accepted psychometric thresholds, indicating a satisfactory item. The mean of 2.19 is the lowest, suggesting a lower level of agreement with this statement. At the same time, it shows the highest standard deviation (SD = 1.39), indicating substantial heterogeneity in responses.

JEALO.5 presents similar indicators to JEALO.3 (raw r = 0.75; standardized r = 0.76; corrected r = 0.67), confirming good discriminative ability. The mean of 2.33 indicates a moderate level of agreement, while the response dispersion (SD = 1.26) is appropriate.

Overall, all items exhibit high item–total correlations (above 0.60 for corrected values), suggesting that each item contributes significantly to the measurement of jealousy and that no item requires elimination. The “item deleted” values indicate that removing any item would reduce the internal consistency of the scale, confirming the instrument’s homogeneity and good reliability.

Based on the data obtained from the Jealousy Self-Report Questionnaire, the highest level of jealousy is observed in the 25–29 age group (21%), followed by the 30–35 age group (20%) and the 18–24 age group (14%).

The 18–24 age group shows a relatively balanced distribution across medium, elevated, and high levels of jealousy, with a slight tendency toward intensification. At this stage, young individuals tend to display a moderate to high level of jealousy, which can be explained by the process of romantic exploration, relationship instability, and the development of affective identity. The specialized literature indicates that insecure attachment styles, such as anxious or avoidant attachment, are frequently present during this period, resulting from limited relational experience and increased sensitivity to emotional validation (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2016). Moreover, emotional impulsivity and affective reactivity are more pronounced, which may account for the higher frequency of intense jealousy episodes.

The 25–29 age group shows the highest levels of intense jealousy. This period corresponds to the consolidation of romantic relationships, the assumption of stable commitments, and increased personal responsibilities. In this context, perceived risks related to fidelity, relationship stability, and emotional investment become more salient, amplifying sensitivity to potential relational threats. From an evolutionary perspective, jealousy intensifies as the stakes within the relationship increase. Psychodynamically, this stage activates anxieties related to loss, insecurity, and abandonment, against the background of social pressures regarding relational stability.

The distribution in the 30–35 age group indicates the maintenance of high levels of jealousy, similar to those observed in the 25–29 category. At this stage, increased responsibilities such as family life and stable partnerships may lead to heightened relationship protection and the reactivation of defensive mechanisms associated with jealousy. However, the absence of medium levels may suggest affective polarization, meaning that individuals are either deeply emotionally involved or experience jealousy primarily as an adaptive response to perceived threats within a stable relational context.

The comparative analysis between groups reveals an upward trend in jealousy from late adolescence (18–24 years) to early adulthood (25–35 years). The increase in high levels of jealousy after the age of 25 can be explained from several perspectives:

1. Psychodynamic perspective: the consolidation of adult attachment relationships intensifies fear of loss and enhances possessive emotions and emotional dependence. Jealousy operates as a defensive mechanism aimed at maintaining relational cohesion. Particularly between 25–35 years, internal and external pressures regarding relationship stability activate unconscious anxieties related to abandonment and rivalry.
2. Socio-cultural perspective: this stage coincides with the establishment of stable relationships, cohabitation, or family formation. Social norms that emphasize fidelity and commitment increase sensitivity to any potential threat, thereby intensifying jealousy as a mechanism for relationship preservation. Social pressure regarding relationship maintenance is significant.
3. Developmental and personality perspective: the impulsivity characteristic of late adolescence shifts toward increased emotional responsibility after the age of 25. Neuroticism and relational anxiety tend to peak in early adulthood and gradually stabilize later on. Thus, elevated jealousy levels in the 25–35 age groups are consistent with this affective profile.

CONCLUSIONS

The synthesis of the scientific information has allowed the formulation of the following conclusions:

Jealousy is conceptualized as a complex and multidimensional psychological construct, situated at the intersection of affectivity, cognitive processes, personality structure, and defensive organization. From the perspective of psychoanalytic literature, attachment theory, and cognitive approaches, jealousy cannot be reduced to a transient emotion, but should be understood as an indicator of psychological vulnerability and of the way early experiences, together with defensive mechanisms, shape the perception and regulation of significant relationships. Thus, jealousy functions both as an adaptive emotion and as a defensive structure, providing relevant information about identity integration, mentalization capacity, and the stability of interpersonal relationships, which gives it major importance in clinical assessment and in the formulation of psychotherapeutic interventions.

The mechanism underlying jealousy reflects its integrative nature, as it results from the interaction of cognitive, emotional, behavioral, and neurobiological processes. It does not emerge as an isolated reaction but as a dynamic process shaped by the individual’s subjective interpretations, early relational experiences, and attachment style. Although jealousy has an adaptive function in protecting significant relationships, its intensification or rigidity indicates difficulties in emotional regulation and potential vulnerabilities in personality organization, making its in-depth understanding essential in clinical contexts.

In the same sense, jealousy can be conceptualized as a structural marker of personality, as it reflects the interdependence between early relational experiences, attachment styles, defensive mechanisms, and emotional regulation capacity. Persistent and maladaptive manifestations indicate structural vulnerabilities and difficulties in affective integration, whereas transient and adaptive forms are associated with secure attachment and mature defense mechanisms. From this perspective, jealousy offers an important window into personality organization and supports psychotherapeutic interventions focused on mentalization, emotional regulation, and the strengthening of mature psychological resources.

In the context of attachment trauma, jealousy goes beyond a simple emotional reaction, becoming a relevant indicator of relational and structural vulnerability. Early experiences of insecure attachment—whether anxious, avoidant, or disorganized—together with childhood relational trauma, significantly influence how individuals perceive relationships, regulate emotions, and organize defensive mechanisms, often leading to intense jealousy, possessiveness, and hypervigilance in adult relationships. Adaptive strategies developed in dysfunctional family environments, whether through compliance or opposition, involve significant psychological costs and deeply shape how individuals manage closeness, rejection, and relational conflict. Clinical and longitudinal evidence confirms that persistent jealousy reflects early relational trauma and personality structure, holding diagnostic and therapeutic value.

From a neurodevelopmental perspective, the attachment neural system plays an essential role in the child’s survival by facilitating proximity to the caregiver. However, given its immaturity in early life, exposure to stressors significantly influences the development of emotional self-regulation and the formation of later relational patterns. In this context, attachment and the family environment exert a major influence on personality development, as attachment patterns formed in childhood structure adult relational functioning, which justifies analyzing the interdependence between personality and family context. Contemporary theories emphasize the decisive role of family, parenting style, and socio-moral factors in shaping personality from early life stages, with early experiences forming the basis for later socialization. Secure attachment, supported by a stable and emotionally responsive environment, fosters harmonious personality development, whereas insecure attachment can produce long-lasting effects on identity formation and contribute to maladaptive manifestations.

The analysis of data obtained through the Jealousy Self-Report Questionnaire shows that jealousy intensity is influenced by the interaction between living environment, age, and educational level. In rural areas, individuals aged 25–35 with secondary education display the highest levels of jealousy, suggesting that traditional norms, increased social visibility, and limited relational experience may amplify emotional reactivity and relational impulsivity. In urban environments, young adults aged 18–24 with higher education show a more balanced distribution of jealousy, reflecting the role of education and exposure to diverse social contexts in developing emotional self-regulation strategies, while gender differences are more pronounced in rural areas and younger age groups but decrease significantly in urban and higher-educated populations.

In conclusion, jealousy and personality are engaged in a complex and bidirectional relationship, in which early traumatic experiences profoundly shape personality development and later manifestations of jealousy reflect this underlying structure. The specialized literature highlights the need for a deeper understanding of the mechanisms involved and emphasizes the importance of developing applied psychological interventions aimed at reducing the negative impact of jealousy and supporting healthy personality development. In this regard, the psychologist’s role involves preventing the intensification of jealous behaviors, including through early psychoeducational interventions starting in preschool age, in order to foster healthy relational patterns and effective emotional regulation.

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Leuțeanu, Gabriela (2026), Determining Jealousy in Young Adults, Cunoașterea Științifică, 5:2, 71-81, DOI: 10.58679/CS62535, https://www.cunoasterea.ro/en/determining-jealousy-in-young-adults/